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Sameness and Difference in Transfer Ference Marton02（第1页）

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Ieneralprinciplebyhandlingaprihegeneralpribedisedbyseparatingitfromthespestanwhichitisembedded.Buthowsuchaseparatihtabout?ThisisactuallytheclassiofgeneralqualitiesandspestaheformerarewhatdwellinPlato'sworldofpureideas，whereasthelatterareulatesouretellthetart?Forexample，howwedistinguish“threeness”

fromthreeapples，theideaofserendipityfromaserendipitousevent，idHolyoak's（1980）casetheideaofsimultaneouslygpathsfratumoriomachbyradiation?

AsIhaveargued，iotheGreeal.（1993）andLobatoa（2002）studies，distorseparationhardlyeaboutbyfooanwhieralandthespecifipletelyiheformerimplicit，thelatterexplicit.Iftherearetwosuffitlydifferentihesamepriison（theprinciple）maypossiblybediswhatisdiffereahemoredifferentcasesavailabletreaterthelikelihoodthattheprinciplewillbedisedastheprimary，oronly，thingontoall，becauseofthelikelihoutwhatisdifferent（Reeves＆Weisberg，1994）.Thelikelihoodofdistinguishingtheprisspestantiationalsobeenhancedbydrawinglearners'attentiontotheoweenthedifferentinstances.

Themainpointisthatieneralpriobeusedinthesepiricallyatleasttlesareioransfer-learhinginSituationA（disgageneralprindusingitinSituationB—islogitehetrasquotedbyLave（1988）demohefirstinstanwhiersdisapriuallyotheyaredealingwithSituatiohanSituationA.FromLave'spoihisbeseenasanexampleoflostruofthesolutiohesolutioexistpriortotheproblembeihepointofviewofmyownlihisisaheyofvariation.Withoutdifferentileasttwo）thelearuobeeawareofthegeneralpri，inafollow-upidHolyoak（1983）showedthatalthoughlearnershadlittlesuabstrag（eilespestaheyfrequentlymaodosowhehtwodifferentinstanecouldsay，ofcourse，thatseveralexamplesmakeitpossiblefortheleareneralpriheexamplesallembodythesamegeneralprirue，providedtheexamplesaredifferent.Usingthesameexampletwiceorseveraltimesinsteadwouldnotdo.

&ionforFutureLearning

Asstated，thisartiteogethedoeness，whichistheideathatrofitiionfromwhattheyhavelearnedinaion，theydosobecausetheymakeuseofthesamecapabilityiothesamefeaturesofthetwosituations.Iamgoistudyasthebasisformyseent.Thisstudywasbecauseitdiffersinimportasfromthestudiesdiscussedsofar.Thestudyiiooasetofstudiesorieoreparationforfuturelearning（e.g.，Bransford＆Schwartz，1999;Schwartz＆Bransford，1988）.Iudiestheobjectofresearchistheeffectiiiuatihthat，oinatraion.TransferhasalsopreviouslybeeermsoftheeffectsiiiioionforfuturelearningstudieshaveuhatareessentialtothepointI>

&ofdepartureiudiesisthestandardtransferparadigmaimedatparirawodifferentsf.Inatraditionaltransferapproaparablegroupsofstudentstrytolearnwhatisnomihiwodifferents，aestedforwhattheyhavelearhesameh.Totheextentthattherearediffereheyareihetwodifferentsftothesameforappraisal.

Now，itmightbethecasethatnodifferencesarefouwos.Oionsmight，however，bebetteratpreparingthelearnersforfutureleardoesnotyieldsuperioratdireastandardtraudy.Ioihis，BransfordandSchwartz（1999）suggestedtheuseofwhatSdMarting（2004）called“thedoubletraudentswereassigwoinstrualtreatments（SituationsA1andA2）.Halfofthestudentsfrombothtreatmentsweregiveoaresource（SituationB），suchasalepleworked-outproblem，followedbyarequesttosolveatransferproblem（Situatioherhalffrombothtreatmeosolvethetransferproblem（Situatiohoutaccesstresource.Theresearcherscalledthisadoubletransferparadigmbecausestuderansferin”

whattheyhadlearheinstrualtreatmenttolearnfromtheresourdtheyra”

whattheyhadlearheresourcetosolvethetargettransferproblem.Totheextentthattherewerediffereheywerebetweewos（SituationsA1andA2）asfarastheirdirecteffethetraask（SituationdtheireffelearninginSituationBareed.Thedifferehushaveiwokindsoftrafolloleofhowsuchadesignhasbeenusediudy.

SdMartin（2004）

Inthisstudy，theobject（whatwastobelearned）aring（high）sdifferentsdifferentdistributioioermsettaskgiverus.Thefollowingtaskwasutilized:“whichoftwostudents，whowereibiologydtookdifferes，didbetteroivetest?”

Susareoistigstandardizedscores（i.e.，bydividingthediffereualsdthemeaributionthatthesgstobythestaionforthesamedistributirasptheratiohistransformatiohgradestudentspartigiudyhadtoicalrespewhichdistributionsmightdifferfromeaelytraltendendvariability.［TherearesimilaritieswiththeinJudd's（1908）experiment，whohadtoheaiohofwaterastwocriticaldifferewotaskstheyweredealingwith.］

Afterhavihstatisticsfor2weeks（allihestudeedsarios，suchasthefollowing:“whobroketheworldrecordbythemostimpressiveamount—JohninhighjumporMikeihrow?”

Iheinstrualtreatments（Situatioswereaskedtoiheirownwayofsolvingtheproblemgivenrawdataforthedistributioresultsduriheotherinstrualtreatment（Situatioswereshohicalmethodfthescoresbyusinghistogramsahodfthestandardizedscoressubsequepragthismethoduhesupervisioeacher.Halfroupsalsoreceivedalearwoworked-outexamples（SituationB）.Thelearningresourteoprovidethestudentswithatwiththetargettransferproblem.Thestudeedhowtoputeaandardizedsc.，“IsBettybetteratassistsorsteals?”

）.Finally，allofthestudehetargettransferproblem，oparestwodifferentbiologytests（Situationthisotalltherarovided，butonlythemeansandstaiosalongwithrawscoresforthetwostudentstopare.

Therewasnosignifitdifferewoinstrualtreatmentsforthestudentswhodidhelearningresource.However，theadditionalpoheworked-outexamplesinSituatiorikingdiffererohe“iasolutiroup（SituationA1）andlittleorfroupthatlyshohicalsolution（SituationA2）.

&showsthatalthoughthestudents'attempttoiasolutioproblem（SituationA1）didnothaveanyadvantagefthetargetproblem（Situationparedtotellisawayofsolvingit（Situatiohadadefiagewhetosolvethetargetproblem（SituationB）.Sothedifferehetransferproblemwashefirstpartoftheexperimeio）nortothesedpart（exposuretresource）.Theeffectwasduetotherelatiohefirstas.Theeffectofthefirstpartwasthusto.IfwedehreepartsA（bygSituationsA1andA2iher），B，andcludethatialeffeodiffereofBoified.Theeffetionwhatothertasksthelearer.Sotheeffectofataskoasklybedeterminedspecifithetextofagiveasks.InacewithLave's（1988）argumentforgsetsofsituations，insteadofonlytwosituationsatatime，gthesetmayimplythattheeffectofagiventaskoaskwillgeaswell.

ButwhatistheherelatiouationsAahestudeiongroupcameupwiththeicalsolutionoftheproblem（standardizedscores），whereasstudeell-and-praditiongroupwereshowhi.Yet，thereositiveeffectofA1andBonparedtotheeffectofA2andBonimportaheiionapproachwastheusecases.Asmehestudentsweresupposedtoparerawsddistributionstowhichthed.Bydoistriedtodetermiributionsdifferedfromeachother，aheicaldifferehem，eveniftheyotcapturethosefeaturesaioherex-pliteiguage.Ifthediffererovidedthestudentswithonekindoftrast，juxtaposingtheirownvagueideasabouttraltendendvariabilitywiththestandardstatisticalversionsofthesamephenomehemwitharast.

Ashasbeehmahepreparationforfuturelearningparadigm，SdMartin（2004）madeuseofdiffererasts）oweeioing（SituationA1）aold（SituationB），ontheonehand，andwithinA1（usinggiiher.Byengdiffereweeheleariceddifferewerecriticalfuishihem.

Thislineleadstothethatwhatwaslearhiscasewastheiivitytoperceivesituatioainways.Thatis，studentsdevelopedacapabilitytodisaspectsofthesituationascriticalorrelevantaosideratioime.Additioiohoseaspectsasrelevant.Thisimpliesthattheactsofdist（thatwhichislearned）andwhatisdisthesituatiouresofthesituationtowardwhichtheactsaredirected）aree.

&disethingbeingdisorythingbedisedwithoutanactofdist.Agly，learningabouttraltendencyorvariability，foristtodistraltendendvariabilityiributioersiure.

WhyUandiheoryisNecessaryfortheUandingofAheory

Iguethatitisactuallyimpossibletograspanythingerieerion.Itis，forinstance，diffipossible，touahouthavingeaalterhesamephenomenon.Howeotherwisedistihetheoryandthephethismeaimethatitisimpossibletouhefirsttheoryofapheweenter.Argumentsfhistoryofsceaspartofthescecurriculumareihisclaim:thus，bytrast（andparadoxiany），learningabouttheAristotelianparadigmofforrelationshipfortifiesuandingofitsoniaheiiohelpsstudentstouaoniangravitation，theideaofabsolutespace-timerevealsthemeaniivisti，thegeotricworldsystemfacilitatesuandingoftheheliotricmodel...（Tseitlin＆Galili，2004）

Aristotleaon

&usexamihefirstoftheseexamples.Agtoon'sfirstlawofmotion，abodyremaioruestomovewiththesamevelolessaforceait.ThisbeillustratedbyaspatheearthtoVenuswithallofitsechedoff.Ifthiswereallwefoewton'slawwouldnotevenseemalaw，butratherastraightforirieralization，muchliketheobservationthatthingsfallwhehem.Ioperceivethesigon'sformulatioepoutsideit.Infagatenihinsteadoflookingatensinspacewoulddo.Ifochofftheewhiletravelingat50kmhraches，shewillheotuetotravelat50kmhr.Itslowsdownandsoooahalt.Asnoforceappearstoathecar，wemaycludethatbewrong.Buttheremindusthatairresistahatathegforwardwiththeechedoff，andanotherisfritheaxleaistheseforcesthatmakethecarstop.Iftherewereanofri，thecarwoulduetomoveforwardat50kmhr.Thereisalwaysairresistahereisalwaysfritheelive.Byjuxtaposion'sfirstlawwithoureverydayexperiencludethatfarfrommakirivialobservatioonsawandformulatedapriotbeseealloh.OureverydayexperienceismoreiheAristoteliaiomakesomethingmoveweneedaforow，thisprincipleprobablyseemsstraightforwardtomostofus，yetittradiewtonianformulation.Howisthis?WhatAristotlesaysisthatifabodyisatrest，ittakesaforakeitmove.Thisistrue.Buttheprincipleiseneralizedifwebelievethatifsomethingismovibeaforcethatkeepsitmoving.

Thediffereleahattheformertriestoexplainthedifferea，whereasthelattertriestoexplaindifferey，whererestbeseenasaspecialcaseofzerovelogeiyiscalledac（orde）.veloplebetweea，requiresaforentwithtvelogrest）doesnotitoon.Weseethedif-fereleaermsoftwodifferentwaysofmakingdistins.Theformermakesadistiweea，whereasthelattermakesadistiweentvelodgvelodrawtwos（atleast）fromthis.First，theonianwayofmakingdistiweenbodiesiismorepowerfulthaelianway（agtothestudyofphysid，theonianwayofmakiionbeesvisiblewhenitisjuxtaposedwiththeAristotelian.

Thisistheteowhyuaheoryisnecessaryfortheuandingofadoesitreallyworklikethisinpractice?GaliliandHazan（2000）providedempiricethatitdoesiheyparedtheuandingofopticsbystudentsengagedialyear-longhistoricallyorientedphysicscourse（thetargetgroup）withthatbystudentsatedinaparablealphysiparisongroup）.Maificideasriatedbyvirtuallyallofthestudegroup.Bywayoftrast，thestudentsintheparisongroupshowedverylittleuanding.Themainmeismbehindthisdifferenatwasthefrequerastsbetweeideasofthesamethingialtreatment.Forexample，intheparisongroup，theviewoflightrayswasreifiedas“whatlightprises”

.Intrast，igroup，lightrayswereceivedasanauxiliarytoolinmodernsce，asaresultgontologicalclaimsofhistoricalmodels.

Myiionisthusthattheimportantfunoftheintroduofalterions;in;orofthestudents'ownnaiveviews，judgedtbytsce;isthatthosealteriohesjudgedrightbytscevisible.Withoutatrast，allstudentsdoislearnthe“whole”

，oftehisdoeshemfnovelproblemsinpowerfulwaysiure.Forexample，thenotionofanauxiliarytooldoesnothavemeaningwithoutaethingthatisnotanauxiliarytool，suchastheontologicallymuch“heavier”

reifiedviewof“lightray”

.

Learningabouttheantiquevieossibleforthelearouhemoderbecausethetwoaresimilar，butbecausetheyaredifferent.Althoughthetwoviewsareviewsofthesamethiive（tradoesnotderivefrwhatissame，butfrwhatisdifferent.Mysuggestionisthatlearningabouttheahenlearningaboutthemodernviewismoreducivetthenlearningaboutthemoderhisshouldbetrue，atleastiflearningismeasuredihelearner'sdistofcriticaldiffereweeahephenomeion（e.g.，fordmhtrays）.