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Chapter 4 Cryptography the secret life of primes（第1页）

Chapter4Cryptography:thesecretlifeofprimes

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Thereaderreciatethattheofumbershas，fromtheearliesttimes，beenreizedastherepositoryofriddlesas，manyofwhieverbeehisday.Formanyofus，thisisenoughtojustifytheuedseriousstudyofhersmaytakeadifferentattitude.Intriguinganddifficultasthesesmaybe，itmightbeimagiheyhavelittlebeariofhumanwisdom.Butthatwouldbeamistake.

&helastfewdecadesithasemergedthatordihekindswealliimetotime，becodedassebers.Thishasintopradourmostprecioussecrets，whethertheybeerilitary，personalorfinancial，politicalhtsdalous，allbeprotetheIbymaskingthemusiordinaryumbers.

&uronumbers

Hoossible?Anyinformatiobeapoemoraba，ablueprintforaonoraputerprogram，bedeswords.Wemay，however，oaugmethatisusedtomakeupourwordsbeyondtheordihealphabet.Wemayinumbersymbols，punbolsingspecialsymbolsforspaordinarywords，butitishecasethatalltheinformatiootransfer，instrusfpiddiagrams，beexpressedusingwordsfromaussay，hahousandsymbols.Wetthesesymbolsaeachsymboluniquelyasanumber.Sinumbersarediible，itmaybettousenumbersallwiththesamenumberofdigitsforthispurpose（so，forexample，everysymbolresentedusitPIringthesymbolstogetherasrequiredtogiveonebiglooldtheeory.Weworkinbinaryifwewishandsodeviseawayanyinformatioringof0sand1s.Everymessagewemighteverwanttosendbecodedasabinarystringatheotherendbyasuitablyprogrammedputer，tobepiledinethatrehend.Thistherealizatiooseweenonepersonaisenough，bothintheoryandiobeabletosendnumbersfromooanother.

Turnionumbers，however，isnotthebigidea.Tobesure，theexactprocessbywhichalltheinformationisdigitizedmaybehiddenfromthegeneralpubliethelessisnotthesourceofproteeavesdroppers.Ihepointofviewraphy，wemayidentifyaheso-calledplaihtherepresentsitahinkofthatheplaiisassumedthatanyonehasaccesstothewherewithalthatwillalloworaheother.Seesontotheswemasktheseplaihothernumbers.

&roduceyoutothefictitiouscharactersthatpopulatethevarioussariraphy，whichisthestudyofciphers（secretcodes）.WeimagineAlidBob，whowanttouheachother，withoutbeiheeavesdropper，Eve.Instinctively，wemightsympathizewithAlidBEveasuptonogood，butofcoursethereversemaybetrue，withEverepresentinganoblepoligauthtoprotectusallfromtheevilplotsofBobandAlice.

&hemoralstandiits，thereisanage-oldapproachthatAliploytocutEveoutoftheversationeveerceptsmessagesthatpassbetweeheycryptthedatausihatisknownonlytoAlidBob.Whattheymayarraodoistomeetinaseviroheyexgewithoheraseumber（letussay57）aurimees，AlicewillwanttoseoBoband，justtoillustratethepoint，supposethatmessageberepresentedbyasibetween1and9.Onthebigday，AlitstoseoBob.Shetakeshermessageandaddsthesegredient，thatistosayshemasksitstruevaluebyadding57ahemessagetoBob，ainseel，of8+57=65.BobreceivesthismessageandsubtractstheseumbertoretrieveAlitext65-57=8.ThenefariousEve，hoodideawhatthesettoandindeeddoesmaercepttheencipheredmessage，65.Butwhatshedowithit?ShemaykAlitoheninepossiblemessages1，2，3，···，9toBobandalsoknowsthatshehasebyaddihemessage，whichmustthereforeliebetween65-9=55and65-1=64.However，becausesheottellwhichoftheseninemaskingnumbershasbeei），sheishewiserastotheactualplaihatAlittoBob，whichisstilljustaslikelytobeaheninepossibilities.AllsheknowsisthatAlitamessagetoBobbuthasis.

ItmightseemthatAlidBobareothemaliceofEveanduhimpunityusingthemagiumber57todisguisealltheyhavetosay.That，however，ishecase.Theywouldbewelladvisedtogethatnumber，iteroffusiimebecauseiftheydoemwillbegintoleakinformationtoEve.Forexample，sayinafutureweekAlitstosendtoBobthesamemessagenumber8.EverythingwouldrunasbeforeandonEvewouldihemysteriousnumber65fromtheairwaves，butthistimeitwouldtellhersomething.Evehateverthismessageis，itisthesamemessagethatAlittoBobiweek–thisisjustthesortofthingAlidBobwouldoknow.

This，however，lookstobenobigproblemforAlidBob.Whemeetupto‘exgekeys’，insteadonumber，AlicecouldprovideBobwithaloofthousaobeusedoher，thusavoidingthepossibilityofmeaningfultheirpubliclyavailableunis.

Andthisisiisdoice.Thiskindofciphersystemisknowradeasaohesenderaheirplaihasingle-usehe‘pad’.Thatleafofthepadisthehthesenderahemessagehasbeeaheoimepadrepresentsapletelysecuresysteminthattheihattravelsinthepubliainoinformationaboutthetoftheplaiodecipherit，theiorholdofthatpadiaiioionkey.

Keysandkeyexge

Itwouldseemthenthattheproblemofseunipletelysolvedbytheoimepadand，inaway，thatistrue.Thedifficultywithciphersliketheoimepad，however，isthattheyrequirethepartitstoexgeakeyiousethem.Iakesalotofeffh-levelunis，suchasthosebetweeeHouseandtheKremlin，moneyishenecessaryexgesarecarriedoutuionsofmaximumsetheeverydayworldoherhand，allsortsofpeopleandinstitutioouhoherinatialfashioitsotaffordthetimeandeosecurekeyexd，evenifthiswerearrarustedthirdparty，itexpensivebusiness.

Theondrahersthathadbeehousandsofyearsupuntilthe1970swasthattheywereallsymmetricciphers，meaningthattheenaioiallythesame.Whetheritwasthesimplealphabet-shiftcipherofJuliusplexEnigmaCipheroftheSedWorldWar，theyallsufferedfromtheoonadversarylearnedhowyouwereenessages，theyjustaswellasyou.Iomakeuseofasymmetriccipher，theunigpartoexgethecipherkeyinasecure>

&ohavebeentacitlyassumedthatthiswasanunavoidableprincipleofsecretcodes–foraciphertobeusedthepartnersneeded，somehoworother，toexgethekeytothedtokeepitsetheehismightberegardedasmathemationsense.

Thisisthekindofassumptionthatmakesamathematisuspiciwithwhatisessentiallyamathematicalsituation，soosuciple’tobewellfoundedaedbysomeformofmathemati.Yettherewasnosu，atherewasnosurinciplesimplyisnotvalid，asthefollowingthoughtexperimentreveals.

TransmissionefromAlicetoBobdoesnotinitselfheexgeofthekeytoacipher，fortheyproceedasfollows.AlicewritesherplaimessageforBob，ainaboxthatshesecureswithherownpadlolyAlicehasthekeytothislock.ShethenpoststheboxtoBob，whoof.Bob，however，thenaddsasedpadlocktothebox，forossessesthekey.TheboxistheoAliovesherownlodsendstheboxforaseetoBob.Thistime，BobmayunlocktheboxandreadAlice’smessage，sethekhemeddlingEveothavepeekedatthetsduringthedeliveryprothisway，asecretmessagemaybesetonaninseelwithoutAlidBihisimaginarysarioshowsthatthereisnolawthatsaysthatakeymustdsintheexgees.Iem，AlidBob’s‘locks’mightbetheirownessageratherthanaphysicaldeviceseparatingthewould-beeavesdropperfromtheplai.Aliaythehisiosetupanordiriccipherthatwouldbeusedtomaskalltheirfutureuni.

&hisisthewayaseunielisofteablishedintherealwphysigdevicesbyperso，however，soeasytodo.UheengsofAliayihoher，makingtheunsg（thatis，theunlog）thatiscarriedoutfirstbyAlidthenbyBobunworkable.However，thatthismethodbeeffectiveublistratedbyWhitfieldDiffieandMartinHellmanin1976.

Asedrelatedapproachistheideaofasymmetricorpublickeycryptographyinwhiepublishestheirownpublickeythatistheesmeantforthatperson.Hoersonalsoholdsaprivatekey，withoutwhichthemessageseheirownuniquepubliotberead.Ihepadlockmetaphor，AliceprovidesBobwithaboxinwhichtoplacehisplaiogetheradlock（herpublickey）towhichshealohekey（herprivatekey）.

Aublickeysystemmightseemtoomuchtoaskforasthetwisofsedeaseofuseseemtoflict.Fast，safeenis，however，availabletothegeneralpublitheIheybarelyrealizethatitisthere，safeguardierests.Anditisalldowntonumbers，andprimehat.

Howsecretprimesprotectoursecrets

&everyplaimessageisregardedjustasasiisnaturaltotrytomaskthisnumberusingotherhemostonwaytodothisisthroughemployingtheso-calledRSAengprocess，publishedin1978byitsfounders，Ro，AdiShamir，andLeonardAdleman.InRSA，ea’sprivatekeysistsofthreenumbers，p，q，andd，wherepandqare（verylarge）primehethirdidisAlice’ssecretdegheroleofwhichwillbeexplainedinduecourse.Aliceprovidesthepubli=pq，theproductofhertwosecretprimes，andanengnumbere（whiordinarywholenumber，inothespestaionedinChapter2）.

AsimpleexampleforthepurposesofillustrationwouldbeforAlicetohavetheprimesp=5andq=13sothatn=5×13=65.IfAlicesetsherengobee=11，thenherpublickeywouldbe（n，e）=（65，11）.Toencryptamessagem，BobonlyneedsnaodeciphertheencryptedmessageE（m）thatBobtransmitstoAlicerequiresthedegnumberd，whithissouttobed=35，asweshallshowalittlefurtheroicsthatallowsdtobecalculatedrequiresthattheprimespandqareknown.Inthistoyexample，giventhatn=65，anyonewouldsoop=5andq=13.However，iftheprimesparemelylarge（typicallytheyarehunderedsofdigitsihistaskbeesapracticalimpossibilityforalmostaem，atleastinareasonablyshorttime，suchastwoorthreeweeks.Insummary，theRSAsystemofengisbasedontheempiricalfactthatitisprohibitivelydiffidtheprimefactorsofavery，verylargehecleverpart，whichlainintheremaihechapter，liesindevisingawaythatthemessagenumbermcipheredjustusingthepublibers，inpractice，degrequirespossessionoftheprimefa.

HereishohatBobsendsthroughtheetherisheremainderwhenmeisdividedbyheakingthisremainderrandsimilarlygtheremainderwhenrdisdividedbyn.TheunderlyiisuresthattheouteforAliceistheinalmessagem，whitheoordinaryplaibyAliputersystem.Thisis，ofcourse，happeningseamlesslybehindthesesforanyreal-lifeAlidBob.

ItwouldseemthattheonlythingthatEvelacksthatreallymattersisthisdegnumberd.IfEvek，shecoulddecipherthemessagejustaswellasAlice.Itturnsoutthatdisasolutioaiion.SolviionisputationallyquiteeasyaheEuAlgorithm，publishedintheBooksofEu300BC.Thatisnotthedifficulty.Thetroubleisthatitisnotpossibletofilywhatequationtosolveunlessyoukoheprimespandq，andthatistheobstaclethatstopsEveiracks.

laihowthenumbersinvolvedinallthisworkiem.First，thereisapparentlyquiteaproblemwithBob’sinitialtask.Thenumbermisbig，thenumbernismonstrous（oftheorderof200digits）andevehatlarge，thenumbermeisgoiremelylargeaswell.Aftergit，wehavetodividemebythetheremainderr，whichrepresentsthee.Itmightseemthatthecalsaretoouobepractical.Weshouldbeawarethateventhoughmodernputersareextremelypowerful，theyyethavetheirlimitations.Whencalsinvhpowers，theyexceedtheputersystem.Welyethatanypracticalcalthatwesetforaputereinashortperiodoftime.

ThesavinggraceforBobisthatitispossibletofindtherequiredremaihoutdoingthelongdivisionatall.Iheremaidependonremainders，andhereisaoillustratethepoint.Whatarethefinaltwodigitsof739?（Thatistosay，whatistheremaihisnumberisdividedby100?）Ioahisquestiobeginbygthefirstfewpowersof7:71=7，72=49，73=343，74=2，401，75=16，807，···.Itwillsoonbeeclear，however，thatthesheersizeofthesenumbersisgoingtobeanageablewellbefetanywherenear739.Oherhaeoeranother，atterhekeyobservationisthat，aswecalculatesugpowers，thefinaltwodigitsoftheanswerdependowodigitsnumber，aswhenweultipli，digitsinthehundredsnandbeyondhaveonisandtensns.